Turning Screws
by Savannah Layfield
The Turn of the Screw incorporates many examples of liminality making it an example of a mediation of binaries. Henry James may have intentionally included these elements because he saw himself as writing from a liminal perspective—living as he did in both Europe and the United States—and because he wanted his novella to be a living work that inspired debate when written and for countless generations thereafter.
Henry James uses increasingly complex examples of liminality in The Turn of the Screw. One, and perhaps the simplest, is the use of changes in light. The majority of the story and nearly all of the “ghost” sightings occur at dusk or dawn. Transitions from darkness to daylight or daylight to darkness are themselves liminal periods that are within the experience of and easily understood by every reader. By setting key events in the novella at these transitional times of the day, Henry James is conveying the liminal nature of the story. Indeed he stresses this transitional quality of the degree of daylight through his use of descriptive language in many sightings of Miss Jessel and Quint. For example, in the first sighting, Henry James spends pages (Halttunen 15-17) referencing the “transitional quality of the light” (Halttunen 475) and on the second sighting he uses the words “the afternoon light still lingered.”
A second important example of liminality included in The Turn of the Screw is the process of change in the lives or existence of most of the characters. The Uncle is in transition from life as a bachelor to becoming the guardian of two young children, Miles and Flora. The Governess is in transition from her simple life in London to the complexities and demanding responsibilities at the large country estate of Bly. Miles and Flora are still adapting to the change from their life with their parents to their new life under the guardianship of their uncle. One would expect that transitions such as single adult to parent, moving from home to take your first job, and losing your parents to be raised by relatives are events that would be understood by a typical reader of The Turn of the Screw. Additionally, as discussed more fully below, Miss Jessel and Quint are in a state of transition from one form of existence to another.
A third example of liminality used in The Turn of the Screw are the ghosts of Miss Jessel and Quint. Ghosts themselves are liminal beings in perpetual transition between life in this world and the next plane of existence—forever on, but not crossing, the threshold to the next world. Henry James stresses this medial quality of the ghosts further by having Miss Jessel and Quint appear in locations associated with transition from one place or state to another. For example, these ghosts appear on the staircase, which is a place of transition from one level to another. They appear in the hallway, which is again a transitional space because it is neither in one room nor the other. The tower where Quint appears is both a transition from one terrestrial level to another and is also, perhaps, symbolic of the transition from the earthly domain to the heavenly plane. The appearance of Quint and Miss Jessel in these transitional spaces is yet further confirmation of the intentional inclusion of liminality in The Turn of the Screw. Most readers of The Turn of the Screw in the 1890s or today would understand the transitional quality of ghosts, stairs, hallways and, symbolically, towers.
Henry James, however, also included more complex examples of medial conditions in The Turn of the Screw. The hypnogogic state is a liminal state between sleep and wakefulness where a person may have vivid hallucinations that, for the person experiencing them, are indistinguishable from reality. The first recorded mention of the hypnogogic state was found in the 1600 autobiography of astrologer Simon Forman. But the first study of it was not published until 1846 (Fleeting Moments) . Henry James was exposed to this idea of the hypnogogic state through his brother William James. William James delivered several speeches about the hypnogogic state as well as dreams, hypnotism, and hysteria at the college of Lowell in Massachusetts just one year before The Turn of the Screw was published. In addition, William James was considered “The foremost American psychologist of his day” (Halttunen 473) particularly on the subject of the hypnogogic state. In his first speech at Lowell, entitled “Dreams and Hypnotism,” he explained what the hypnogogic state was and how it is a “normal form of dreaming” (474). He then explained that the main consequence of this state is the subject’s suggestibility. So in a way the hypnogogic state can be thought of as a period of intense daydreams during which the person experiencing the daydream is very suggestible.
If one looks at The Turn of the Screw, as Karen Halttunen did, one can see the influence of William James' work on the hypnogogic state used as an example of liminality. Halttunen argues that reading the novella as if the reader was William James provides a more historically accurate argument to the true meaning of the presence of Quint and Miss Jessel that they are in fact by-products of the Governess being in the hypnogogic state. The governess is an “irregular and fitful sleeper, as well as a frequent night-walker who may be a victim of what William James called ‘sleep-drunkenness.’” (Halttunen 475) An irregular or fitful sleeper would be prone to more periods of transition between sleep and wakefulness. Indeed, it is possible that the state that allows one to sleepwalk is a prolonged hypnogogic state or a prolonged period in which one is susceptible to entering a hypnogogic state.
Moreover, like the individual in a hypnogogic state, the governess is highly suggestible, which can be observed in her curiosity and imaginative nature. For example, right after seeing Quint in the tower she wonders to herself if there is a secret at Bly without having yet learned any of the background facts regarding Quint and Miss Jessel. Her willingness to accept the possibility of a secret or mystery at the first sign of evidence is indicative of a curious and imaginative mind. The Governess also remarks at her first meeting with Quint that she experience a “bewilderment of vision” (Halttunen). This ambiguous phrase could suggest she either believed she imagined what she saw or was open to the possibility that what she saw was a hallucination.
The Governess is also prone to daydreams. One example of this is her admission that she was quick to daydream about her employer. She mentions this to Mrs. Groves, saying, “I'm rather easily carried away. I was carried away in London!” (Virginia) Moreover the storyline created by Henry James forces the Governess to imagine or daydream much to fill in the context of her life. Her employer is a mysterious figure who lives away. The reason for the expulsion of Miles is never revealed. With all these things in mind it is clear why both Karen Halttunen and I have come to the conclusion that if William James would have met the Governess he would have called her visions of Miss Jessel and Quint typical hallucinations of the hypnogogic state. Henry James understood the transitional nature of the hypnogogic state and likely included such strong evidence of it in The Turn of the Screw to underscore the liminal quality of the story.
Another complex example of liminality used in The Turn of the Screw is the deliberate inclusion of elements of both spiritualism and science in the story, which places the story in the middle of the 1890s debate between spiritualism and science. After the Civil War, America saw a rapid growth in spiritualism, which was not mirrored in Europe. This is usually attributed to an overall progressive attitude in America during this time. Henry James would have been aware of the differing views on spiritualism in America and Europe because he traveled between and lived in both London and the United States during the period. As noted above, during the same period a substantial body of work in the emerging psychological sciences was published and discussed in America (Nartonis). Henry James was aware of the developments in psychology through his brother. For these reasons, it appears Henry James intentionally included both elements of spiritualism, in the form of the ghosts of Miss Jessel and Quint, and a possible scientific explanation that these characters were merely hypnogogic hallucinations of the Governess to intentionally place The Turn of the Screw in the middle of the debate between spiritualism and science. The novella has evidence that readers can cite to support either explanation of the “ghosts.” Perhaps Henry James chose to include these alternative explanations for what transpires in The Turn of the Screw to intentionally leave the work in a liminal state with respect to an explanation of ghosts; this would make the story appeal to both American and European readers and would fuel the debate regarding whether science or spirituality provided the best explanation of the events described by the Governess. Certainly, The Turn of the Screw is not a traditional ghost story designed to frighten its readers; rather, it is more complex. Complex things have a purpose to their design. In The Turn of the Screw, Henry James likely included this complexity to intentionally place the novella in the middle of the debate between spiritualism and the emerging psychological sciences.
It also should not be lost on the reader of The Turn of the Screw that Henry James himself was in a liminal state for much of his life, including the period during the writing of the novella. At that time he lived and wrote in both England and the United States. The trip between London and the United States was not the quick six-hour flight we know today. Rather, at each transition from London to the United States or the United States to London, Henry James would have spent six days on a ship crossing the Atlantic. Six days in transition to think. Six days in transition to perhaps write. Indeed, Henry James likely saw himself, and his life as somewhat liminal. In fact, a portion of the epitaph on his tombstone reads: “Citizen of two countries Interpreter of his generation on both sides of the sea”(Mcnightdeary).
Finally, although many explanations for the title The Turn of the Screw have been proposed, the title unmistakably conveys the liminal character of the story. Any reader, in the 1890s or today, understands the concept of a screw. If a screw can be turned, it is neither fully tightened nor fully loosened; instead, the screw is in a state of transition between these two definite states.
All these facts support the conclusion that Henry James intentionally created The Turn of the Screw using elements to make the novella liminal and an example of a mediation of binaries, because he saw himself as writing from a liminal perspective between Europe and the United States and because he wanted the work to live on and inspire debate not only in the 1890s but for generations of new readers as well.
Works Cited
“Fleeting Moments between Waking and Sleep Conducive to Anomalous Experiences." Pureinsight. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://www.pureinsight.org/node/1172>.
Halttunen, Karen. ""Through the Cracked and Fragmented Self": William James and The Turn of the Screw." American Quarterly. 4th ed. Vol. 40. N.p.: : The Johns Hopkins UP, 1988. 472-90. Credo. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.lamar.edu/stable/pdfplus/2712998.pdf?acceptTC=true>.
Mcnightdeary. Henry James Grave. 2009. Photograph. Web. Wikimedia. Web. 12 May 2013. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_James_grave.jpg>.
Nartonis, David K. "The Rise of 19th-Century American Spiritualism, 1854–1873."Onlinelibrary. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01515.x/asset/j.1468-5906.2010.01515.x.pdf?v=1&t=hg2eqrpf&s=64553290667a4d383b367a981ea6f669a898c6f8>.
"University of Virginia Library Digital Curation Services." Digital Curation Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=JamTurn.sgm>.
Henry James uses increasingly complex examples of liminality in The Turn of the Screw. One, and perhaps the simplest, is the use of changes in light. The majority of the story and nearly all of the “ghost” sightings occur at dusk or dawn. Transitions from darkness to daylight or daylight to darkness are themselves liminal periods that are within the experience of and easily understood by every reader. By setting key events in the novella at these transitional times of the day, Henry James is conveying the liminal nature of the story. Indeed he stresses this transitional quality of the degree of daylight through his use of descriptive language in many sightings of Miss Jessel and Quint. For example, in the first sighting, Henry James spends pages (Halttunen 15-17) referencing the “transitional quality of the light” (Halttunen 475) and on the second sighting he uses the words “the afternoon light still lingered.”
A second important example of liminality included in The Turn of the Screw is the process of change in the lives or existence of most of the characters. The Uncle is in transition from life as a bachelor to becoming the guardian of two young children, Miles and Flora. The Governess is in transition from her simple life in London to the complexities and demanding responsibilities at the large country estate of Bly. Miles and Flora are still adapting to the change from their life with their parents to their new life under the guardianship of their uncle. One would expect that transitions such as single adult to parent, moving from home to take your first job, and losing your parents to be raised by relatives are events that would be understood by a typical reader of The Turn of the Screw. Additionally, as discussed more fully below, Miss Jessel and Quint are in a state of transition from one form of existence to another.
A third example of liminality used in The Turn of the Screw are the ghosts of Miss Jessel and Quint. Ghosts themselves are liminal beings in perpetual transition between life in this world and the next plane of existence—forever on, but not crossing, the threshold to the next world. Henry James stresses this medial quality of the ghosts further by having Miss Jessel and Quint appear in locations associated with transition from one place or state to another. For example, these ghosts appear on the staircase, which is a place of transition from one level to another. They appear in the hallway, which is again a transitional space because it is neither in one room nor the other. The tower where Quint appears is both a transition from one terrestrial level to another and is also, perhaps, symbolic of the transition from the earthly domain to the heavenly plane. The appearance of Quint and Miss Jessel in these transitional spaces is yet further confirmation of the intentional inclusion of liminality in The Turn of the Screw. Most readers of The Turn of the Screw in the 1890s or today would understand the transitional quality of ghosts, stairs, hallways and, symbolically, towers.
Henry James, however, also included more complex examples of medial conditions in The Turn of the Screw. The hypnogogic state is a liminal state between sleep and wakefulness where a person may have vivid hallucinations that, for the person experiencing them, are indistinguishable from reality. The first recorded mention of the hypnogogic state was found in the 1600 autobiography of astrologer Simon Forman. But the first study of it was not published until 1846 (Fleeting Moments) . Henry James was exposed to this idea of the hypnogogic state through his brother William James. William James delivered several speeches about the hypnogogic state as well as dreams, hypnotism, and hysteria at the college of Lowell in Massachusetts just one year before The Turn of the Screw was published. In addition, William James was considered “The foremost American psychologist of his day” (Halttunen 473) particularly on the subject of the hypnogogic state. In his first speech at Lowell, entitled “Dreams and Hypnotism,” he explained what the hypnogogic state was and how it is a “normal form of dreaming” (474). He then explained that the main consequence of this state is the subject’s suggestibility. So in a way the hypnogogic state can be thought of as a period of intense daydreams during which the person experiencing the daydream is very suggestible.
If one looks at The Turn of the Screw, as Karen Halttunen did, one can see the influence of William James' work on the hypnogogic state used as an example of liminality. Halttunen argues that reading the novella as if the reader was William James provides a more historically accurate argument to the true meaning of the presence of Quint and Miss Jessel that they are in fact by-products of the Governess being in the hypnogogic state. The governess is an “irregular and fitful sleeper, as well as a frequent night-walker who may be a victim of what William James called ‘sleep-drunkenness.’” (Halttunen 475) An irregular or fitful sleeper would be prone to more periods of transition between sleep and wakefulness. Indeed, it is possible that the state that allows one to sleepwalk is a prolonged hypnogogic state or a prolonged period in which one is susceptible to entering a hypnogogic state.
Moreover, like the individual in a hypnogogic state, the governess is highly suggestible, which can be observed in her curiosity and imaginative nature. For example, right after seeing Quint in the tower she wonders to herself if there is a secret at Bly without having yet learned any of the background facts regarding Quint and Miss Jessel. Her willingness to accept the possibility of a secret or mystery at the first sign of evidence is indicative of a curious and imaginative mind. The Governess also remarks at her first meeting with Quint that she experience a “bewilderment of vision” (Halttunen). This ambiguous phrase could suggest she either believed she imagined what she saw or was open to the possibility that what she saw was a hallucination.
The Governess is also prone to daydreams. One example of this is her admission that she was quick to daydream about her employer. She mentions this to Mrs. Groves, saying, “I'm rather easily carried away. I was carried away in London!” (Virginia) Moreover the storyline created by Henry James forces the Governess to imagine or daydream much to fill in the context of her life. Her employer is a mysterious figure who lives away. The reason for the expulsion of Miles is never revealed. With all these things in mind it is clear why both Karen Halttunen and I have come to the conclusion that if William James would have met the Governess he would have called her visions of Miss Jessel and Quint typical hallucinations of the hypnogogic state. Henry James understood the transitional nature of the hypnogogic state and likely included such strong evidence of it in The Turn of the Screw to underscore the liminal quality of the story.
Another complex example of liminality used in The Turn of the Screw is the deliberate inclusion of elements of both spiritualism and science in the story, which places the story in the middle of the 1890s debate between spiritualism and science. After the Civil War, America saw a rapid growth in spiritualism, which was not mirrored in Europe. This is usually attributed to an overall progressive attitude in America during this time. Henry James would have been aware of the differing views on spiritualism in America and Europe because he traveled between and lived in both London and the United States during the period. As noted above, during the same period a substantial body of work in the emerging psychological sciences was published and discussed in America (Nartonis). Henry James was aware of the developments in psychology through his brother. For these reasons, it appears Henry James intentionally included both elements of spiritualism, in the form of the ghosts of Miss Jessel and Quint, and a possible scientific explanation that these characters were merely hypnogogic hallucinations of the Governess to intentionally place The Turn of the Screw in the middle of the debate between spiritualism and science. The novella has evidence that readers can cite to support either explanation of the “ghosts.” Perhaps Henry James chose to include these alternative explanations for what transpires in The Turn of the Screw to intentionally leave the work in a liminal state with respect to an explanation of ghosts; this would make the story appeal to both American and European readers and would fuel the debate regarding whether science or spirituality provided the best explanation of the events described by the Governess. Certainly, The Turn of the Screw is not a traditional ghost story designed to frighten its readers; rather, it is more complex. Complex things have a purpose to their design. In The Turn of the Screw, Henry James likely included this complexity to intentionally place the novella in the middle of the debate between spiritualism and the emerging psychological sciences.
It also should not be lost on the reader of The Turn of the Screw that Henry James himself was in a liminal state for much of his life, including the period during the writing of the novella. At that time he lived and wrote in both England and the United States. The trip between London and the United States was not the quick six-hour flight we know today. Rather, at each transition from London to the United States or the United States to London, Henry James would have spent six days on a ship crossing the Atlantic. Six days in transition to think. Six days in transition to perhaps write. Indeed, Henry James likely saw himself, and his life as somewhat liminal. In fact, a portion of the epitaph on his tombstone reads: “Citizen of two countries Interpreter of his generation on both sides of the sea”(Mcnightdeary).
Finally, although many explanations for the title The Turn of the Screw have been proposed, the title unmistakably conveys the liminal character of the story. Any reader, in the 1890s or today, understands the concept of a screw. If a screw can be turned, it is neither fully tightened nor fully loosened; instead, the screw is in a state of transition between these two definite states.
All these facts support the conclusion that Henry James intentionally created The Turn of the Screw using elements to make the novella liminal and an example of a mediation of binaries, because he saw himself as writing from a liminal perspective between Europe and the United States and because he wanted the work to live on and inspire debate not only in the 1890s but for generations of new readers as well.
Works Cited
“Fleeting Moments between Waking and Sleep Conducive to Anomalous Experiences." Pureinsight. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://www.pureinsight.org/node/1172>.
Halttunen, Karen. ""Through the Cracked and Fragmented Self": William James and The Turn of the Screw." American Quarterly. 4th ed. Vol. 40. N.p.: : The Johns Hopkins UP, 1988. 472-90. Credo. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.lamar.edu/stable/pdfplus/2712998.pdf?acceptTC=true>.
Mcnightdeary. Henry James Grave. 2009. Photograph. Web. Wikimedia. Web. 12 May 2013. <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_James_grave.jpg>.
Nartonis, David K. "The Rise of 19th-Century American Spiritualism, 1854–1873."Onlinelibrary. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/store/10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01515.x/asset/j.1468-5906.2010.01515.x.pdf?v=1&t=hg2eqrpf&s=64553290667a4d383b367a981ea6f669a898c6f8>.
"University of Virginia Library Digital Curation Services." Digital Curation Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Apr. 2013. <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=JamTurn.sgm>.
